Key scientific references

As pioneers in the area of A2 protein type science with over 20 years investment into research, we are looking to further develop scientific evidence on the benefits of A2 protein type and its subsequent health effects.

As our research environment matures, we continue to build on our expertise for impactful awareness and research communication to researchers and the wider audience

There is a developing body of scientific literature that underpins A1 beta-casein digestion, the release of BCM-7 and its subsequent health effects. The a2 Milk Company (Australia) is committed to building upon and presenting to healthcare professionals this evidence base.

If you are a health professional interested in learning more about this exciting area of scientific research, you might like to visit the links below to articles and research studies published by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not imply any endorsement or approval by us.

Below you will find studies into the A1/A2 beta-casein digestive differences as well as links to the original papers.

Monica Ramakrishnan, Tracy K. Eaton, Omer M. Sermet and Dennis A. Savaiano (2020). Nutrients, 12:12, doi.org/10.3390/nu12123855
Milk containing A2 β-Casein ONLY, as a single meal, causes fewer symptoms of lactose intolerance than milk containing A1 and A2 β-Caseins in subjects with lactose maldigestion and intolerance: A randomized, double-blind, crossover trial. Milk containing A2 β-Casein ONLY, as a single meal, causes fewer symptoms of lactose intolerance than milk containing A1 and A2 β-Caseins in subjects with lactose maldigestion and intolerance: A randomized, double-blind, crossover trial.
Comparison of the impact of bovine milk β-casein variants on digestive comfort in females self-reporting dairy intolerance: a randomized controlled trial
Amber M Milan, Aahana Shrestha, Helga J Karlström, Jakob A Martinsson, Nils J Nilsson, Jo K Perry, Li Day, Matthew P G Barnett, David Cameron-Smith (2019). The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqz279
Unravelled facets of milk derived opioid peptides: a focus on gut physiology, fractures and obesity
Hajara Aslam, Anu Ruusunen, Michael Berk, Amy Loughman, Leni Rivera, Julie A. Pasco and Felice N. Jacka (2019). International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, DOI: 10.1080/09637486.2019.1614540
Effects of Conventional Milk Versus Milk Containing Only A2 β-Casein on Digestion in Chinese Children: A Randomized Study.
Xiaoyang Sheng, Zailing Li, Jiayi Ni & Greg Yelland (2019). Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. DOI: 10.1097/MPG.0000000000002437
Systematic review of the gastrointestinal effects of A1 compared with A2 beta-casein. Advances in Nutrition, 8(5), pp: 739-748.
Brooke-Taylor, S. Dwyer, K. Woodford K. Kost, N. (2017).
Clinical evaluation of glutathione concentrations after consumption of milk containing different subtypes of beta-casein: results from a randomized, cross-over clinical trial. Nutrition Journal, 15(1).
Deth, R. Clarke, A. Ni, J. Trivedi, M. (2016).
Effects of milk containing only A2 beta-casein versus milk containing both A1 and A2 beta-casein proteins on gastrointestinal physiology, symptoms of discomfort, and cognitive behaviour of people with self-reported intolerance to traditional cows' milk. Nutrition Journal, 15(35).
Jianqin, S. Leiming, X. Li, X. Yelland, GW. Ni, J. Clarke, AJ. (2016).
Effects of cow's milk beta-casein variants on symptoms of milk intolerance in Chinese adults: a multicentre, randomised controlled study. Nutrition Journal, 16(1).
He, M. Sun, J. Jiang, ZQ. Yang, YX. (2017).
The effect of endurance exercise on intestinal integrity in well-trained healthy men. Physiological Reports, 4(20).
JanssenDuijghuijsen, LM. Mensink, M. Lenaerts, K. Fiedorowicz, E. van Dartel, DAM. Mes, JJ. Luiking YC. Keijer, J. Wichers, HJ. Witkamp, RF. van Norren, K. (2016).
Identification of bioactive peptides and quantification of beta-casomorphin-7 from bovine beta-casein A1, A2 and I after ex vivo gastrointestinal digestion. International Diary Journal, 71.
Asledottir, T. Le, TT. Petrat-Melin, B. Devold, TG. Larsen, LB. Vegarud, GE. (2017).
Preclinical and clinical trials for investigating the effect of A1 vs A2 beta-casein containing diet on Glutathione antioxidant status. The FASEB Journal, 30(1).
Trivedi, MS. Deth, R. Zhang, Y. (2016).
Food-derived opioid peptides inhibit cysteine uptake with redox and epigenetic consequences. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 25(10), pp: 1011-1018.
Trivedi, MS. Shah, JS. Al-Mughairy, S. Hodgson, NW. Simms, B. Trooskens, GA. Van Creikinge, W. Deth, RC. (2014).
Scientific Report of EFSA prepared by a DATEX Working Group on the potential health impact of ß-casomorphins and related peptides
EFSA Scientific Report (2009). 231, 1-107
Health implications of milk containing beta-casein with the A2 genetic variant. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 46(1), pp: 93-100.
Bell, SJ. Grochoski, GT. Clarke, AJ. (2006).
Gluten-Free and Casein-Free Diets
Mulloy A, Lang R, O’Reilly M, Sigafoos J, Lancioni G, Rispoli M, (2010). Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 4(3):328-39
Beta casein A1 and A2 in milk and human health
Swinburn B, (2004). Prepared for New Zealand Food Safety Authority, July, 2004
The A2 milk case: a critical review. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59(5), pp:623-631.
Truswell, AS. (2005).
A critique of Truswell's A2 milk review. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 60(3), pp: 437-439.
Woodford K.B, (2006).
Further research for consideration in 'the A2 milk case'. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 60(7), pp: 924-925.
Allison, AJ. Clarke, AJ. (2006).
Formation and degradation of beta-casomorphins in dairy processing. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 55(14), pp:1955-1967.
Nguyen, DD. Johnson, SK. Busetti, F. Solah, VA. (2015).
Polymorphism of bovine beta-casein and its potential effect on human health. Journal of Applied Genetics, 48(4), pp:189-198.
Kaminski, S. Cieslinska, A. Kostyra, E. (2007).
Caseins as source of bioactive peptides. International Dairy Journal, 15(1), pp:1-15.
Silva, SV. Malcata, FX. (2005).
Functional Significance of Bioactive Peptides Derived from Milk Proteins
Kamauab S.M, Lua R, Chena W, Liua X, Tiana F, Shena Y, et al. (2010). Food Reviews International 26(4): 386-401
Opioid peptides encrypted in intact milk protein sequences
Meisel H & FitzGerald R.J, (2000). Br J Nutr. 84 Suppl 1, S27-31
Opioid activities of beta-casomorphins
Brantl V, Teschemacher H, Blasig J, Henschen A, Lottspeich F, (1981). Life Sci. 28(17),1903-9
Effects of milk-derived bioactives: an overview
Shah N.P, (2000). Br J Nutr. 84 Suppl 1:S3-10
Immunoregulatory peptides in bovine milk
Gill H.S, Doull F, Rutherfurd K.J, Cross M.L, (2000). Br J Nutr. 84(Suppl 1), S111-7
Latent bioactive peptides in milk proteins: proteolytic activation and significance in dairy processing
Gobbetti M, Stepaniak L, De Angelis M, Corsetti A, Di Cagno R, (2002). Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 42(3):223-39
Milk A1 and A2 peptides and diabetes
Clemens R.A, (2011). Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Pediatr Program. 67:187-95
Intestinal assimilation of intact peptides and proteins from the diet–a neglected field?
Gardner M.L, (1984). Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 59(3):289-331
Gluten- and casein-free diets for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)
Millward C, Ferriter M, Calver S, Connell-Jones G, (2008). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 16;(2):CD003498
Minireview. Peptides and the blood-brain barrier
Meisenberg G, Simmons W.H, (1983). Life Sci. 32(23):2611-23
Effects of peptides on animal and human behavior: a review of studies published in the first twenty years of the journal Peptides
McLay R.N, Pan W, Kastin A.J, (2001). Peptides. 22(12):2181-255
Dipeptidyl-peptidase IV from bench to bedside: an update on structural properties, functions, and clinical aspects of the enzyme DPP IV
Lambeir A.M, Durinx C, Scharpe S, De Meester I, (2003). Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 40(3):209-94
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*A1 and A2 proteins refer to A1 and A2 beta-casein protein types

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a2 Milk® comes from cows specially selected to naturally produce milk with only the A2 beta-casein protein type so may be easier on digestion than regular milk for some milk intolerant individuals when consumed as part of a healthy, varied diet.